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CHROMOSOME ORGANIZATION AND KARYOTYPES: THE BLUEPRINTS OF GENETIC IDENTITY

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“𝓚𝓪𝓻𝔂𝓸𝓽𝔂𝓹𝓲𝓬 𝓿𝓪𝓻𝓲𝓪𝓽𝓲𝓸𝓷 𝓹𝓻𝓸𝓿𝓲𝓭𝓮𝓼 𝓸𝓷𝓮 𝓸𝓯 𝓽𝓱𝓮 𝓬𝓵𝓮𝓪𝓻𝓮𝓼𝓽 𝓬𝔂𝓽𝓸𝓵𝓸𝓰𝓲𝓬𝓪𝓵 𝔀𝓲𝓷𝓭𝓸𝔀𝓼 𝓲𝓷𝓽𝓸 𝓰𝓮𝓷𝓸𝓶𝓮 𝓮𝓿𝓸𝓵𝓾𝓽𝓲𝓸𝓷.” - Prof. Patricia Ann Jacobs 🧬 Chromosomes are the structural and functional units of heredity. Beyond DNA sequence, their organization within the nucleus plays a decisive role in gene regulation, genome stability, and cellular identity.         🔹 At the molecular level, chromosomes consist of DNA wrapped around histone proteins, forming chromatin. This hierarchical packaging allows meters of DNA to fit within a micrometer-scale nucleus while remaining dynamically accessible. During interphase, chromatin adopts an open configuration that supports transcription, whereas during mitosis and meiosis it condenses into discrete chromosomes, ensuring accurate segregation. Each chromosome is structurally defined by its centromere, creating a short (p) and long (q) arm. Cent...
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SPACE EPIGENETICS: COSMIC RADIATION EFFECTS

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“ℍ𝕚𝕘𝕙-𝕖𝕟𝕖𝕣𝕘𝕪 𝕡𝕒𝕣𝕥𝕚𝕔𝕝𝕖 𝕣𝕒𝕕𝕚𝕒𝕥𝕚𝕠𝕟 𝕚𝕟 𝕤𝕡𝕒𝕔𝕖 𝕡𝕣𝕠𝕕𝕦𝕔𝕖𝕤 𝕓𝕚𝕠𝕝𝕠𝕘𝕚𝕔𝕒𝕝 𝕖𝕗𝕗𝕖𝕔𝕥𝕤 𝕥𝕙𝕒𝕥 𝕕𝕚𝕗𝕗𝕖𝕣 𝕗𝕦𝕟𝕕𝕒𝕞𝕖𝕟𝕥𝕒𝕝𝕝𝕪 𝕗𝕣𝕠𝕞 𝕥𝕖𝕣𝕣𝕖𝕤𝕥𝕣𝕚𝕒𝕝 𝕣𝕒𝕕𝕚𝕒𝕥𝕚𝕠𝕟, 𝕚𝕟𝕔𝕝𝕦𝕕𝕚𝕟𝕘 𝕖𝕡𝕚𝕘𝕖𝕟𝕖𝕥𝕚𝕔 𝕒𝕝𝕥𝕖𝕣𝕒𝕥𝕚𝕠𝕟𝕤 𝕥𝕙𝕒𝕥 𝕞𝕒𝕪 𝕚𝕟𝕗𝕝𝕦𝕖𝕟𝕔𝕖 𝕔𝕒𝕟𝕔𝕖𝕣 𝕣𝕚𝕤𝕜.” - Dr. Peter Guida 🧬 As humanity advances toward long-duration missions beyond low Earth orbit, biological or life risk is emerging as a central constraint. One of the most compelling frontiers is space epigenetics; how cosmic radiation reshapes gene regulation without altering DNA sequence.           🔹 Cosmic radiation is dominated by high-energy protons & heavy ions (HZE particles). Unlike terrestrial radiation, these particles produce dense ionization tracks, generating complex DNA damage. Astronauts aboard the International Space Station experience chronic low-dose exposure, w...
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IMMUNE EPIGENETICS: T-CELL EXHAUSTION AND TRAINED IMMUNITY

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“𝔼𝕩𝕙𝕒𝕦𝕤𝕥𝕚𝕠𝕟 𝕚𝕤 𝕟𝕠𝕥 𝕤𝕚𝕞𝕡𝕝𝕪 𝕒 𝕗𝕦𝕟𝕔𝕥𝕚𝕠𝕟𝕒𝕝 𝕤𝕥𝕒𝕥𝕖 𝕓𝕦𝕥 𝕒 𝕕𝕚𝕤𝕥𝕚𝕟𝕔𝕥 𝕕𝕚𝕗𝕗𝕖𝕣𝕖𝕟𝕥𝕚𝕒𝕥𝕚𝕠𝕟 𝕝𝕚𝕟𝕖𝕒𝕘𝕖 𝕨𝕚𝕥𝕙 𝕚𝕥𝕤 𝕠𝕨𝕟 𝕥𝕣𝕒𝕟𝕤𝕔𝕣𝕚𝕡𝕥𝕚𝕠𝕟𝕒𝕝 𝕒𝕟𝕕 𝕖𝕡𝕚𝕘𝕖𝕟𝕖𝕥𝕚𝕔 𝕚𝕕𝕖𝕟𝕥𝕚𝕥𝕪.” - Prof. Rafi Ahmed 🧬 The immune system balances responsiveness and restraint through finely tuned regulatory layers, with epigenetics emerging as a central determinant of immune cell fate. Among the most compelling epigenetically governed phenomena are T-cell exhaustion & trained immunity, seemingly opposing states that together reveal the plasticity of immune memory.           🔹 Epigenetics refers to heritable changes in gene expression that occur without altering DNA sequence, primarily via DNA methylation, histone modifications, and chromatin remodeling. In T cells, these mechanisms orchestrate activation, differentiation, memory formation, & dysfunction. Persist...
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SINGLE-CELL EPIGENOMICS: RESOLVING REGULATORY DIVERSITY

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“𝕊𝕚𝕟𝕘𝕝𝕖-𝕔𝕖𝕝𝕝 𝕖𝕡𝕚𝕘𝕖𝕟𝕠𝕞𝕚𝕔 𝕥𝕖𝕔𝕙𝕟𝕠𝕝𝕠𝕘𝕚𝕖𝕤 𝕣𝕖𝕧𝕖𝕒𝕝 𝕣𝕖𝕘𝕦𝕝𝕒𝕥𝕠𝕣𝕪 𝕡𝕣𝕠𝕘𝕣𝕒𝕞𝕤 𝕥𝕙𝕒𝕥 𝕒𝕣𝕖 𝕚𝕟𝕧𝕚𝕤𝕚𝕓𝕝𝕖 𝕚𝕟 𝕓𝕦𝕝𝕜 𝕞𝕖𝕒𝕤𝕦𝕣𝕖𝕞𝕖𝕟𝕥𝕤, 𝕦𝕟𝕔𝕠𝕧𝕖𝕣𝕚𝕟𝕘 𝕙𝕠𝕨 𝕚𝕟𝕕𝕚𝕧𝕚𝕕𝕦𝕒𝕝 𝕔𝕖𝕝𝕝𝕤 𝕚𝕟𝕥𝕖𝕣𝕡𝕣𝕖𝕥 𝕥𝕙𝕖 𝕤𝕒𝕞𝕖 𝕘𝕖𝕟𝕠𝕞𝕖 𝕕𝕚𝕗𝕗𝕖𝕣𝕖𝕟𝕥𝕝𝕪.” - Howard Y. Chang 🧬 Single-cell epigenomics is now a fundament of modern genomics, enabling high-resolution dissection of gene regulatory mechanisms that define cellular identity, function, and fate. By moving beyond bulk averages, it exposes regulatory heterogeneity critical to development, immunity, and disease. 🔹 Epigenomics studies DNA methylation and histone modifications that regulate gene expression without altering DNA sequence. These dynamic marks integrate developmental and environmental cues. Bulk assays mask rare or transient states; especially problematic in heterogeneous tissues such as brain, immune system, and tumors. 🔹 Single-cell technologi...
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WEEKEND READS 📚

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Recommended book of the weekend: 🍃 ☕ ➡️ " THE GIRL WITH ALL THE GIFTS" By M.R. Carey   🍁🍁🍁🍁🍁🍁🍁🍁🍁🍁🍁🍁🍁🍁🍁🍁🍁🍁🍁🍁🍁🍁🍁🍁
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IMPRINTING DISORDERS: A CLOSER LOOK AT PRADER-WILLI, ANGELMAN, AND BECKWITH-WIEDEMANN SYNDROMES

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“𝔾𝕖𝕟𝕠𝕞𝕚𝕔 𝕚𝕞𝕡𝕣𝕚𝕟𝕥𝕚𝕟𝕘 𝕚𝕤 𝕒 𝕞𝕖𝕔𝕙𝕒𝕟𝕚𝕤𝕞 𝕓𝕪 𝕨𝕙𝕚𝕔𝕙 𝕥𝕙𝕖 𝕤𝕒𝕞𝕖 𝕘𝕖𝕟𝕖 𝕔𝕒𝕟 𝕙𝕒𝕧𝕖 𝕕𝕚𝕒𝕞𝕖𝕥𝕣𝕚𝕔𝕒𝕝𝕝𝕪 𝕠𝕡𝕡𝕠𝕤𝕚𝕥𝕖 𝕖𝕗𝕗𝕖𝕔𝕥𝕤 𝕕𝕖𝕡𝕖𝕟𝕕𝕚𝕟𝕘 𝕠𝕟 𝕨𝕙𝕖𝕥𝕙𝕖𝕣 𝕚𝕥 𝕚𝕤 𝕚𝕟𝕙𝕖𝕣𝕚𝕥𝕖𝕕 𝕗𝕣𝕠𝕞 𝕥𝕙𝕖 𝕞𝕠𝕥𝕙𝕖𝕣 𝕠𝕣 𝕥𝕙𝕖 𝕗𝕒𝕥𝕙𝕖𝕣.” - Prof. Azim Surani 🧬 Imprinting disorders arise when genes normally expressed from only one parental allele become dysregulated. This parent-of-origin specific expression is essential for growth, neurodevelopment, and early embryonic programming. When imprinting fails, it results in well-defined syndromes with characteristic features. Among the most studied are Prader-Willi Syndrome (PWS), Angelman Syndrome (AS), and Beckwith-Wiedemann Syndrome (BWS), each distinct yet unified by a shared epigenetic mechanism.        🔹 Prader–Willi Syndrome (PWS): Loss of paternal genes on 15q11–q13 (mainly deletions). Features include infant hypotonia, earl...
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WEEKEND READS 📚

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Recommended book of the weekend: 🍃 ☕ ➡️ " THE WINDURF GIRL" By Paolo Bacigalupi   🍁🍁🍁🍁🍁🍁🍁🍁🍁🍁🍁🍁🍁🍁🍁🍁🍁🍁🍁🍁🍁🍁🍁🍁
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